1. The founder of the Gupta dynasty was:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Sri Gupta
D) Chandragupta II
Answer: C) Sri Gupta
Explanation: Sri Gupta (c. 240 CE) founded the dynasty, but the real empire builder was Chandragupta I.
2. The real founder of the Gupta Empire was:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Skandagupta
Answer: A) Chandragupta I
Explanation: Around 319 CE, Chandragupta I expanded his rule and started the Gupta Era.
3. Chandragupta I strengthened his position by:
A) Conquering Satavahanas
B) Marriage alliance with Lichchhavis
C) Defeating Shakas
D) Alliance with Kushanas
Answer: B) Marriage alliance with Lichchhavis
Explanation: His marriage to Kumaradevi (a Lichchhavi princess) added prestige and territory.
4. Chandragupta I assumed the title:
A) Vikramaditya
B) Devaputra
C) Maharajadhiraja
D) Chakravartin
Answer: C) Maharajadhiraja
Explanation: He took this title, signifying imperial status.
5. The Gupta era began in:
A) 319–320 CE
B) 273 BCE
C) 120 CE
D) 606 CE
Answer: A) 319–320 CE
Explanation: Started by Chandragupta I, used in inscriptions and later by rulers.
6. The capital of the Gupta Empire was:
A) Ujjain
B) Pataliputra
C) Prayaga
D) Kannauj
Answer: B) Pataliputra
Explanation: Like Mauryas, Guptas made Pataliputra their main capital.
7. The most famous Gupta ruler, called the “Napoleon of India,” was:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Skandagupta
Answer: B) Samudragupta
Explanation: V.A. Smith called him this due to his extensive conquests.
8. The most important source for Samudragupta’s reign is:
A) Mehrauli Iron Pillar
B) Harshacharita
C) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
D) Rajatarangini
Answer: C) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
Explanation: Written by his court poet Harisena, it details his digvijaya.
9. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription was composed by:
A) Kalidasa
B) Harisena
C) Amarasimha
D) Dandin
Answer: B) Harisena
Explanation: Harisena was Samudragupta’s court poet and minister.
10. Samudragupta’s southern expedition resulted in:
A) Annexation of Tamil states
B) Subjugation of rulers as tributaries
C) Conquest of Sri Lanka
D) Destruction of Deccan kingdoms
Answer: B) Subjugation of rulers as tributaries
Explanation: He defeated but reinstated southern rulers as vassals.
11. Samudragupta followed the policy of:
A) Dharmavijaya
B) Digvijaya
C) Rajavijaya
D) Balavijaya
Answer: B) Digvijaya
Explanation: He expanded the empire through military conquest.
12. Samudragupta was also called:
A) Devaputra
B) Lichchhavi-dauhitra
C) Parameshwara
D) Aryaputra
Answer: B) Lichchhavi-dauhitra
Explanation: Meaning “daughter’s son of Lichchhavis,” highlighting his mother’s lineage.
13. Samudragupta issued coins depicting him as a:
A) Flute player
B) Veena player
C) Horse rider
D) Wrestler
Answer: B) Veena player
Explanation: His coins show his love for music.
14. Gupta kings mainly issued coins of:
A) Copper
B) Iron
C) Silver
D) Gold (Dinaras)
Answer: D) Gold (Dinaras)
Explanation: Guptas are known for their high-quality gold coinage.
15. Samudragupta performed:
A) Ashvamedha sacrifice
B) Rajasuya sacrifice
C) Vajapeya sacrifice
D) Agnihotra
Answer: A) Ashvamedha sacrifice
Explanation: His coins show a horse, symbolizing this Vedic ritual of supremacy.
16. The Gupta dynasty’s greatness was consolidated under:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Kumaragupta
Answer: B) Samudragupta
Explanation: He vastly expanded the empire and influence.
17. The Gupta period is called the “Golden Age” because of:
A) Economic prosperity
B) Advances in art, science, literature
C) Political unity
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: The age saw flourishing culture, trade, and governance.
18. Who was called the “Indian Augustus”?
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II
C) Kumaragupta
D) Skandagupta
Answer: A) Samudragupta
Explanation: Due to his expansion and cultural patronage.
19. Samudragupta’s empire extended:
A) From Himalayas to Tamil Nadu
B) From Bengal to western India, plus overlordship of south
C) Entire subcontinent permanently
D) Only Gangetic plains
Answer: B) From Bengal to western India, plus overlordship of south
Explanation: He controlled north India directly and south as tributaries.
20. Samudragupta maintained friendly relations with:
A) Kushans
B) Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
C) Hunas
D) Satavahanas
Answer: B) Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Explanation: Sri Lankan king Meghavarman built a monastery at Bodh Gaya with his permission.
21. The title “Maharajadhiraja” was first assumed by:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Kumaragupta
Answer: A) Chandragupta I
Explanation: This imperial title signified Gupta sovereignty.
22. Samudragupta’s coins with the Ashvamedha horse show him as:
A) Religious monarch
B) Defender of Buddhism
C) Vedic monarch asserting supremacy
D) Naval power
Answer: C) Vedic monarch asserting supremacy
Explanation: Ashvamedha was a political and religious assertion of kingship.
23. Gupta inscriptions were usually composed in:
A) Pali
B) Prakrit
C) Sanskrit
D) Tamil
Answer: C) Sanskrit
Explanation: Gupta period saw the classical rise of Sanskrit.
24. The Gupta period saw revival of:
A) Vedic rituals
B) Brahmanical Hinduism
C) Sanskrit literature
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: It was a Hindu revival age after Buddhist dominance.
25. The Gupta Empire began to rise in:
A) Magadha region (eastern UP–Bihar)
B) Punjab
C) Deccan
D) Bengal
Answer: A) Magadha region (eastern UP–Bihar)
Explanation: Their base was in Magadha and adjoining regions.
26. Chandragupta II is popularly known as:
A) Ashokavardhana
B) Vikramaditya
C) Samrat Chakravarti
D) Rajaraja
Answer: B) Vikramaditya
Explanation: He assumed the title “Vikramaditya,” symbolizing valor and cultural brilliance.
27. Chandragupta II was the son of:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Kumaragupta
D) Skandagupta
Answer: B) Samudragupta
Explanation: He succeeded his father, Samudragupta.
28. Chandragupta II expanded the empire mainly towards:
A) South India
B) North-East India
C) Western India
D) Central Asia
Answer: C) Western India
Explanation: He defeated the Shaka-Kshatrapas and gained Gujarat and Malwa.
29. The defeat of the Shakas under Chandragupta II gave the Guptas control of:
A) Deccan trade
B) Gujarat ports and western sea trade
C) Northern Silk Route
D) Himalayan passes
Answer: B) Gujarat ports and western sea trade
Explanation: This enhanced the empire’s prosperity through maritime trade.
30. The second capital of the Guptas under Chandragupta II was:
A) Prayaga
B) Ujjain
C) Ayodhya
D) Nalanda
Answer: B) Ujjain
Explanation: Strategic for controlling western India and trade routes.
31. The famous Chinese traveler who visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign was:
A) Xuanzang
B) Fa-Hien
C) I-Tsing
D) Al-Biruni
Answer: B) Fa-Hien
Explanation: He visited during 399–414 CE and wrote about Indian society and Buddhism.
32. Fa-Hien came to India mainly to:
A) Trade with Indians
B) Study Hindu law
C) Collect Buddhist scriptures
D) Meet Chandragupta II
Answer: C) Collect Buddhist scriptures
Explanation: He visited monasteries and studied Buddhist practices.
33. The Navaratnas (Nine Gems) are associated with:
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
C) Kumaragupta
D) Skandagupta
Answer: B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
Explanation: His court included Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Varahamihira, etc.
34. The greatest Sanskrit poet of the Gupta age was:
A) Banabhatta
B) Kalidasa
C) Bharavi
D) Dandin
Answer: B) Kalidasa
Explanation: His works include Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, Meghaduta.
35. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription belongs to:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Skandagupta
Answer: C) Chandragupta II
Explanation: The inscription eulogizes him, and the pillar is known for its rust resistance.
36. Chandragupta II issued coins showing him as:
A) Flute player
B) Archer and horse-rider
C) Wrestler
D) Devotee of Vishnu
Answer: B) Archer and horse-rider
Explanation: These coins glorified his martial power.
37. Kumaragupta I was the son of:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Chandragupta II
D) Skandagupta
Answer: C) Chandragupta II
Explanation: Kumaragupta I succeeded his father Chandragupta II.
38. Kumaragupta I founded which famous university?
A) Nalanda University
B) Vikramshila University
C) Vallabhi University
D) Takshashila University
Answer: A) Nalanda University
Explanation: Established in Bihar, it became a major Buddhist learning center.
39. Kumaragupta I performed which Vedic sacrifice to assert his authority?
A) Rajasuya
B) Vajapeya
C) Ashvamedha
D) Agnihotra
Answer: C) Ashvamedha
Explanation: Like Samudragupta, he performed the horse sacrifice.
40. Which foreign invaders attacked during the later years of Kumaragupta I?
A) Greeks
B) Hunas
C) Shakas
D) Arabs
Answer: B) Hunas
Explanation: The Hunas (White Huns) began their invasions during his time.
41. Skandagupta is famous for:
A) Expanding empire into Deccan
B) Defeating Hunas
C) Patronizing Kalidasa
D) Building Nalanda
Answer: B) Defeating Hunas
Explanation: He repulsed the Hunas but exhausted the empire’s resources.
42. Skandagupta issued coins depicting him as:
A) Worshipper of Kartikeya
B) Musician
C) Wrestler
D) Archer
Answer: A) Worshipper of Kartikeya
Explanation: His coins depict him offering prayers to Kartikeya.
43. Skandagupta’s reign witnessed:
A) Beginning of Gupta decline
B) Maximum prosperity of the Guptas
C) Revival of Buddhism
D) Conquest of Deccan
Answer: A) Beginning of Gupta decline
Explanation: The empire weakened due to financial strain from Hun invasions.
44. The Junagarh (Girnar) rock inscription of Skandagupta mentions:
A) Defeat of Hunas
B) Repairs of Sudarshana Lake
C) Victory in Ashvamedha
D) Patronage of Nalanda
Answer: B) Repairs of Sudarshana Lake
Explanation: It records the restoration of the lake by Skandagupta’s governor.
45. Skandagupta ruled during:
A) 335–375 CE
B) 375–415 CE
C) 455–467 CE
D) 500–550 CE
Answer: C) 455–467 CE
Explanation: His reign marked the last strong Gupta ruler before decline.
46. Who among the following was the last great Gupta ruler?
A) Chandragupta II
B) Kumaragupta I
C) Skandagupta
D) Vishnugupta
Answer: C) Skandagupta
Explanation: After him, the empire rapidly declined.
47. The Hunas attacked India most severely during the reign of:
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II
C) Skandagupta
D) Kumaragupta II
Answer: C) Skandagupta
Explanation: He defeated them but at huge economic cost.
48. The Gupta ruler who successfully defended the empire against the Hunas was:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Skandagupta
D) Vishnugupta
Answer: C) Skandagupta
Explanation: He stopped their advance temporarily.
49. After Skandagupta, the Gupta Empire began to fragment due to:
A) Financial crisis
B) Invasions of Hunas
C) Weak rulers
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Combined pressures led to decline.
50. The ruler under whose reign the Gupta Empire attained maximum territorial extent was:
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
C) Kumaragupta I
D) Skandagupta
Answer: B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
Explanation: His reign marks the empire’s peak in size and prosperity.
51. The Gupta polity can best be described as:
A) Centralized bureaucracy
B) Decentralized monarchy with feudal elements
C) Tribal confederacy
D) Military democracy
Answer: B) Decentralized monarchy with feudal elements
Explanation: Unlike Mauryas, the Guptas allowed local autonomy to feudatories and provincial rulers.
52. The king in Gupta period was called:
A) Samrat or Chakravartin
B) Devanampiya Priyadarshi
C) Sultan
D) Devaputra
Answer: A) Samrat or Chakravartin
Explanation: Gupta kings claimed divine kingship and supreme authority.
53. Provincial governors in Gupta administration were called:
A) Rajukas
B) Kumaramatyas
C) Uparikas
D) Amatyas
Answer: C) Uparikas
Explanation: Uparikas headed provinces, often appointed by the king.
54. Districts under the Guptas were called:
A) Bhuktis
B) Vishayas
C) Gramas
D) Patakas
Answer: B) Vishayas
Explanation: Vishayas formed the district-level administration.
55. The most important village headman in Gupta period was called:
A) Gramani
B) Gramabhojaka
C) Gopa
D) Rajuka
Answer: B) Gramabhojaka
Explanation: He was responsible for revenue collection and law & order.
56. Land revenue under the Guptas was generally:
A) 1/2 of produce
B) 1/3 to 1/6 of produce
C) Fixed money rent
D) Voluntary donation
Answer: B) 1/3 to 1/6 of produce
Explanation: The Guptas collected taxes in kind and cash depending on produce.
57. The Gupta rulers issued large numbers of:
A) Copper coins
B) Gold coins (Dinaras)
C) Iron coins
D) Stone currency
Answer: B) Gold coins (Dinaras)
Explanation: Gupta gold coins were of exceptional purity and artistry.
58. The economy of the Gupta period was boosted by:
A) Land revenue
B) Agriculture
C) Trade through western seaports (Gujarat)
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Agriculture and trade made the Gupta economy prosperous.
59. The Gupta age saw the decline of:
A) Inland trade
B) Roman trade
C) Maritime trade
D) Agriculture
Answer: B) Roman trade
Explanation: After the decline of the Roman Empire, gold inflow reduced.
60. The practice of land grants to Brahmanas and officials was called:
A) Bhukti
B) Agrahara
C) Vishaya
D) Viharas
Answer: B) Agrahara
Explanation: These tax-free land grants encouraged Brahmanical Hinduism.
61. The main religion of the Gupta rulers was:
A) Buddhism
B) Jainism
C) Vaishnavism (Hinduism)
D) Shaivism
Answer: C) Vaishnavism (Hinduism)
Explanation: The Guptas were Vaishnavas but tolerant of other religions.
62. The Gupta period saw revival of:
A) Vedic sacrifices
B) Idol worship of Vishnu and Shiva
C) Sanskrit literature
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: It marked the Brahmanical revival and Hindu cultural flourishing.
63. The temple architecture of the Guptas was characterized by:
A) Rock-cut caves
B) Structural temples with shikhara
C) Buddhist stupas
D) Indo-Islamic domes
Answer: B) Structural temples with shikhara
Explanation: Gupta temples mark the beginning of the Nagara style.
64. The Dasavatara temple at Deogarh is dedicated to:
A) Vishnu
B) Shiva
C) Buddha
D) Surya
Answer: A) Vishnu
Explanation: It is one of the earliest surviving examples of Gupta temple architecture.
65. The Gupta period is called the “Golden Age of India” mainly because of:
A) Military conquest
B) Cultural achievements in art, science, and literature
C) Foreign invasions repelled
D) Maritime trade
Answer: B) Cultural achievements in art, science, and literature
Explanation: Gupta age saw peak in Sanskrit literature, art, and sciences.
66. The famous playwright Kalidasa lived in the court of:
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
C) Kumaragupta
D) Skandagupta
Answer: B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
Explanation: He was one of the Navaratnas.
67. The drama Abhijnanashakuntalam was written by:
A) Harisena
B) Kalidasa
C) Bhasa
D) Dandin
Answer: B) Kalidasa
Explanation: It is considered a masterpiece of Sanskrit drama.
68. Meghaduta, a lyrical poem describing seasons, was authored by:
A) Amarasimha
B) Kalidasa
C) Bharavi
D) Banabhatta
Answer: B) Kalidasa
Explanation: This classic poem reflects Gupta age literary brilliance.
69. The Sanskrit lexicon Amarakosha was written by:
A) Kalidasa
B) Bharavi
C) Amarasimha
D) Dandin
Answer: C) Amarasimha
Explanation: He was one of the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II’s court.
70. The famous astronomer and mathematician Aryabhatta belonged to:
A) Maurya period
B) Gupta period
C) Harsha period
D) Mughal period
Answer: B) Gupta period
Explanation: Aryabhatta (5th century CE) wrote Aryabhatiya.
71. Aryabhatta is credited with:
A) Concept of zero
B) Value of π (pi)
C) Rotation of Earth on its axis
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: His work made pioneering contributions in mathematics and astronomy.
72. The decimal system in mathematics developed during:
A) Mauryan age
B) Gupta age
C) Harsha age
D) Medieval age
Answer: B) Gupta age
Explanation: It was a major contribution of Gupta mathematicians.
73. The famous medical text Charaka Samhita was updated during Gupta age by:
A) Sushruta
B) Vagbhata
C) Dhanvantari
D) Charaka
Answer: B) Vagbhata
Explanation: He recompiled earlier Ayurvedic knowledge.
74. The Gupta period art is best represented by sculptures of:
A) Amravati
B) Sarnath
C) Ajanta caves
D) Ellora caves
Answer: C) Ajanta caves
Explanation: Ajanta paintings (5th century CE) reflect Gupta artistic glory.
75. The famous cave paintings at Ajanta belong to:
A) Gupta period
B) Maurya period
C) Harsha period
D) Kushana period
Answer: A) Gupta period
Explanation: The Ajanta frescoes depicting Buddha’s life are masterpieces of Gupta art.
76. The decline of the Gupta Empire began after the reign of:
A) Samudragupta
B) Chandragupta II
C) Skandagupta
D) Kumaragupta I
Answer: C) Skandagupta
Explanation: After Skandagupta’s death (467 CE), the empire rapidly declined due to Hun invasions and weak successors.
77. The chief cause of Gupta decline was:
A) Huna invasions
B) Internal revolts
C) Weak rulers after Skandagupta
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Multiple factors combined to weaken the empire.
78. The Hunas were led by:
A) Attila
B) Toramana and Mihirakula
C) Demetrius
D) Kanishka
Answer: B) Toramana and Mihirakula
Explanation: They invaded India in the 5th–6th centuries CE.
79. The Hunas established their base in:
A) Punjab and Rajasthan
B) Deccan
C) Bengal
D) Tamil Nadu
Answer: A) Punjab and Rajasthan
Explanation: They settled in north-western India after initial invasions.
80. The Huna king Mihirakula was a follower of:
A) Jainism
B) Buddhism
C) Shaivism
D) Vaishnavism
Answer: C) Shaivism
Explanation: He was a Shaiva ruler known for cruelty, especially against Buddhists.
81. The defeat of Mihirakula by Indian rulers was achieved by:
A) Harshavardhana and Yashodharman of Malwa
B) Chandragupta II and Skandagupta
C) Satavahanas and Cholas
D) Pulakesin II and Pallavas
Answer: A) Harshavardhana and Yashodharman of Malwa
Explanation: They united and defeated Mihirakula in 528 CE.
82. After the Gupta decline, north India was fragmented into:
A) Regional kingdoms
B) Centralized empires
C) Tribal republics
D) Buddhist theocracies
Answer: A) Regional kingdoms
Explanation: States like Maitrakas, Vakatakas, and Pushyabhutis rose.
83. The last known Gupta ruler was:
A) Skandagupta
B) Kumaragupta II
C) Vishnugupta
D) Bhanugupta
Answer: C) Vishnugupta
Explanation: He ruled around 540 CE and was defeated by the Hunas.
84. The Hunas were finally expelled from India by:
A) Chandragupta II
B) Skandagupta
C) Yasodharman of Malwa
D) Samudragupta
Answer: C) Yasodharman of Malwa
Explanation: He defeated Mihirakula and ended Huna power in India.
85. The decline of Gupta economy was caused by:
A) Collapse of Roman trade
B) Decline of gold inflow
C) Costly wars with Hunas
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Trade decline and wars drained resources.
86. After Gupta decline, which dynasty rose in Deccan?
A) Pallavas
B) Vakatakas
C) Chalukyas
D) Satavahanas
Answer: B) Vakatakas
Explanation: They filled the political vacuum in Deccan.
87. The Gupta period is known as the “Golden Age of India” mainly due to:
A) Vast empire
B) Flourishing of literature, art, science
C) Strong army
D) Religious tolerance
Answer: B) Flourishing of literature, art, science
Explanation: Cultural progress was the hallmark of this age.
88. Gupta rulers patronized:
A) Vaishnavism
B) Shaivism
C) Buddhism and Jainism
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: They followed Hinduism but tolerated other religions.
89. The famous Sarnath Buddha image belongs to:
A) Maurya age
B) Gupta age
C) Kushana age
D) Harsha age
Answer: B) Gupta age
Explanation: Gupta sculptures perfected the serene Buddha image.
90. The Ajanta caves flourished during:
A) Satavahanas
B) Guptas and Vakatakas
C) Mauryas
D) Pallavas
Answer: B) Guptas and Vakatakas
Explanation: Their patronage created the world-famous murals.
91. The Gupta legacy in mathematics includes:
A) Concept of zero
B) Decimal system
C) Value of π
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Aryabhatta and others contributed significantly.
92. In astronomy, Aryabhatta proposed that:
A) Sun revolves around Earth
B) Earth rotates on its axis
C) Planets are fixed
D) Lunar eclipse is due to demons
Answer: B) Earth rotates on its axis
Explanation: He explained eclipses scientifically.
93. The Gupta period literature was mostly in:
A) Pali
B) Sanskrit
C) Prakrit
D) Tamil
Answer: B) Sanskrit
Explanation: Classical Sanskrit literature flourished under Gupta patronage.
94. The Gupta period lawgiver who wrote Mitakshara was:
A) Brihaspati
B) Vijnaneshwara
C) Yajnavalkya
D) Narada
Answer: C) Yajnavalkya
Explanation: His Smriti was important in Hindu law.
95. The Gupta administration is often compared with:
A) Mauryan centralized system
B) Mughal mansabdari system
C) British ICS
D) Feudal European system
Answer: D) Feudal European system
Explanation: Like Europe, land grants and feudal tendencies grew.
96. The Hun invasions contributed to:
A) Military weakening of Guptas
B) Economic exhaustion
C) Political disintegration
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Hunas accelerated Gupta decline.
97. The Guptas’ greatest contribution to Indian art was:
A) Stupas
B) Temple architecture with shikhara
C) Fort architecture
D) Rock-cut chaityas
Answer: B) Temple architecture with shikhara
Explanation: Nagara-style temples began in Gupta period.
98. The Nalanda University was founded by:
A) Chandragupta I
B) Samudragupta
C) Kumaragupta I
D) Skandagupta
Answer: C) Kumaragupta I
Explanation: Nalanda became the greatest Buddhist learning center.
99. The Gupta empire’s decline paved the way for the rise of:
A) Harsha and Pushyabhutis in north India
B) Chalukyas in Deccan
C) Pallavas in Tamil Nadu
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
Explanation: Post-Gupta fragmentation gave rise to regional powers.
100. The Gupta dynasty is remembered in Indian history as:
A) The first empire of India
B) The last great Hindu empire before medieval age
C) A symbol of Golden Age of culture and science
D) Both B and C
Answer: D) Both B and C
Explanation: Guptas marked India’s cultural zenith and last great Hindu empire before medieval invasions.