1. The Satavahanas were also known as?
A) Andhras
B) Vakatakas
C) Chalukyas
D) Cheras
Answer: A
Explanation: The Satavahanas, ruling Deccan (1st century BCE–3rd century CE), were referred to as the Andhras in Puranas.
2. The founder of Satavahana dynasty was?
A) Satakarni I
B) Simuka
C) Gautamiputra Satakarni
D) Yajna Sri Satakarni
Answer: B
Explanation: Simuka established the dynasty around 1st century BCE.
3. The most famous Satavahana ruler was?
A) Pulakesin I
B) Gautamiputra Satakarni
C) Krishna Deva Raya
D) Rajendra Chola
Answer: B
Explanation: Known for defeating Shakas, expanding empire, and patronizing Brahmanism.
4. The Satavahana capital was at?
A) Amaravati
B) Paithan (Pratishthana)
C) Kanchipuram
D) Madurai
Answer: B
Explanation: Paithan (Maharashtra) served as their capital.
5. The Satavahanas issued coins mostly made of?
A) Gold
B) Silver
C) Lead and copper
D) Iron
Answer: C
Explanation: They were among the earliest to issue lead coins.
6. The early Tamil kingdoms mentioned in Sangam literature are?
A) Chola, Chera, Pandya
B) Pallava, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta
C) Satavahana, Chola, Yadava
D) Vijayanagara, Bahmani
Answer: A
Explanation: These three formed the Muvendar (three crowned kings of Tamilakam).
7. The capital of the early Cholas was?
A) Tanjavur
B) Uraiyur
C) Kanchipuram
D) Madurai
Answer: B
Explanation: The ancient Chola capital before the imperial period.
8. The capital of the early Pandyas was?
A) Madurai
B) Korkai
C) Tiruchirapalli
D) Uraiyur
Answer: A
Explanation: Madurai was the ancient capital of the Pandyas.
9. The Cheras had their capital at?
A) Karur
B) Muziris
C) Madurai
D) Kanchipuram
Answer: A
Explanation: Karur (in present Tamil Nadu) was capital; Muziris was their important port.
10. The Chera emblem was?
A) Fish
B) Bow
C) Tiger
D) Lotus
Answer: B
Explanation: Bow symbolized the Chera dynasty.
11. The Chola emblem was?
A) Fish
B) Bow
C) Tiger
D) Bull
Answer: C
Explanation: Tiger symbolized Chola power.
12. The Pandya emblem was?
A) Fish
B) Tiger
C) Bow
D) Elephant
Answer: A
Explanation: The fish was the emblem of the Pandyas.
13. The Sangam literature was written in which language?
A) Sanskrit
B) Tamil
C) Prakrit
D) Pali
Answer: B
Explanation: It is the earliest Tamil literature (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE).
14. The Sangam assemblies were held at?
A) Kanchipuram
B) Uraiyur
C) Madurai
D) Karur
Answer: C
Explanation: Three Sangams (literary assemblies) are believed to have been held there.
15. Which Pallava king assumed the title Mahamalla?
A) Mahendravarman I
B) Narasimhavarman I
C) Nandivarman II
D) Dantivarman
Answer: B
Explanation: Known for defeating Chalukyas and building Mahabalipuram temples.
16. Who was the founder of Pallava dynasty?
A) Nandivarman
B) Simhavishnu
C) Mahendravarman I
D) Narasimhavarman II
Answer: B
Explanation: He revived Pallava power in late 6th century CE.
17. The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram were built by?
A) Pandyas
B) Cholas
C) Pallavas
D) Satavahanas
Answer: C
Explanation: Built under Narasimhavarman I and Narasimhavarman II.
18. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was built by?
A) Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha)
B) Mahendravarman I
C) Nandivarman
D) Rajaraja Chola
Answer: A
Explanation: Example of structural temple architecture.
19. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram was built by?
A) Cholas
B) Pallavas
C) Pandyas
D) Cheras
Answer: B
Explanation: Narasimhavarman II built it in Dravidian style.
20. Which Pallava ruler defeated Pulakesin II (Chalukya)?
A) Simhavishnu
B) Mahendravarman I
C) Narasimhavarman I
D) Narasimhavarman II
Answer: C
Explanation: He captured Vatapi (Badami) in 642 CE.
21. The famous Chinese traveler who visited Pallava kingdom was?
A) Fa-Hien
B) Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang)
C) Al-Biruni
D) Marco Polo
Answer: B
Explanation: He visited Kanchipuram during Narasimhavarman I’s reign.
22. The title “Vatapikonda” (conqueror of Vatapi) was assumed by?
A) Mahendravarman I
B) Narasimhavarman I
C) Rajaraja Chola
D) Krishna Deva Raya
Answer: B
Explanation: After defeating Chalukya Pulakesin II at Vatapi.
23. Which Pallava king adopted Jainism in his later life?
A) Mahendravarman I
B) Simhavishnu
C) Narasimhavarman I
D) Dantivarman
Answer: A
Explanation: Though initially a Shaivite, he turned to Jainism later.
24. The Mandagapattu inscription speaks about the construction of temples without brick, wood, metal or mortar. It is attributed to?
A) Simhavishnu
B) Mahendravarman I
C) Narasimhavarman I
D) Rajaraja Chola
Answer: B
Explanation: Marks the beginning of rock-cut architecture by Pallavas.
25. The Pallava style of architecture was later adopted and developed by?
A) Rashtrakutas
B) Cholas
C) Vijayanagara rulers
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Explanation: Pallava innovations in Dravidian architecture influenced later dynasties.
Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th century CE)
26. The founder of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami was?
A) Pulakesin I
B) Pulakesin II
C) Kirtivarman I
D) Vikramaditya I
Answer: A
Explanation: He established Chalukya power around 543 CE, with Badami (Vatapi) as capital.
27. The most famous Chalukya ruler was?
A) Pulakesin I
B) Pulakesin II
C) Vikramaditya II
D) Mangalesha
Answer: B
Explanation: He defeated Harsha on the Narmada, extended empire in Deccan.
28. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited India during the reign of?
A) Harsha
B) Pulakesin II
C) Narasimhavarman I
D) Dantidurga
Answer: B
Explanation: He described Pulakesin’s rule as prosperous and efficient.
29. Pulakesin II was defeated by?
A) Harsha
B) Narasimhavarman I (Pallava)
C) Rajaraja Chola
D) Krishna Deva Raya
Answer: B
Explanation: He captured Vatapi (642 CE). Pulakesin probably died in this battle.
30. The Chalukyan ruler who captured Kanchipuram from Pallavas was?
A) Vikramaditya II
B) Pulakesin II
C) Kirtivarman II
D) Pulakesin I
Answer: A
Explanation: He defeated Pallavas and captured Kanchipuram in 8th century CE.
31. The Chalukyas were great patrons of?
A) Nagara architecture
B) Vesara style of architecture
C) Dravidian style only
D) Indo-Islamic style
Answer: B
Explanation: Fusion of Nagara and Dravidian elements, seen at Aihole and Pattadakal.
32. The temple known as the “Cradle of Indian Temple Architecture” is?
A) Kailasanatha temple, Kanchi
B) Lad Khan temple, Aihole
C) Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
D) Virupaksha temple, Hampi
Answer: B
Explanation: Early Chalukyan temple at Aihole, Karnataka.
33. The Chalukya inscriptions were issued in which language?
A) Sanskrit
B) Prakrit
C) Kannada and Sanskrit
D) Tamil
Answer: C
Explanation: They used both languages in inscriptions and administration.
Rashtrakutas (8th–10th century CE)
34. Who was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty?
A) Krishna I
B) Dantidurga
C) Amoghavarsha I
D) Govinda III
Answer: B
Explanation: He overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami in 753 CE and founded Rashtrakuta rule.
35. The capital of Rashtrakutas was?
A) Badami
B) Devagiri
C) Manyakheta
D) Kalyani
Answer: C
Explanation: It remained their capital during most of their rule.
36. The Rashtrakuta ruler who built the famous Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was?
A) Dantidurga
B) Krishna I
C) Govinda III
D) Amoghavarsha I
Answer: B
Explanation: He built the rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora, a masterpiece of Indian art.
37. The Rashtrakuta ruler considered equal to Ashoka for his religious tolerance was?
A) Krishna II
B) Amoghavarsha I
C) Govinda III
D) Indra III
Answer: B
Explanation: He was a scholar and patron of Jainism, compared to Ashoka for tolerance.
38. The Rashtrakuta king who defeated the Pratiharas and Palas was?
A) Govinda III
B) Dantidurga
C) Amoghavarsha I
D) Krishna II
Answer: A
Explanation: He led successful campaigns in north India, establishing Rashtrakuta power.
39. The Rashtrakutas patronized which Kannada work?
A) Kavirajamarga
B) Manimekalai
C) Silappadikaram
D) Rajatarangini
Answer: A
Explanation: Written by Srivijaya under Amoghavarsha’s patronage, earliest Kannada literary work.
40. The Rashtrakuta empire declined in the 10th century due to?
A) Defeat by Cholas and Later Chalukyas
B) Invasions of Turks
C) Mongols
D) Pallavas
Answer: A
Explanation: Weak successors and pressure from Cholas and Chalukyas ended Rashtrakuta rule.
Later Chalukyas of Kalyani (10th–12th century CE)
41. The Later Chalukyas had their capital at?
A) Badami
B) Manyakheta
C) Kalyani (Basavakalyan)
D) Devagiri
Answer: C
Explanation: Their rule is also called Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.
42. The founder of the Later Chalukyas was?
A) Tailapa II
B) Vikramaditya VI
C) Pulakesin I
D) Krishna I
Answer: A
Explanation: He revived Chalukya power in late 10th century by defeating Rashtrakutas.
43. The greatest ruler of Later Chalukyas was?
A) Tailapa II
B) Somesvara I
C) Vikramaditya VI
D) Jagadhekamalla
Answer: C
Explanation: He issued the famous Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076 CE) and ruled successfully.
44. The Later Chalukyas contributed to which style of temple architecture?
A) Nagara
B) Dravida
C) Vesara (Kalyani style)
D) Indo-Islamic
Answer: C
Explanation: Intermediate style, seen in Lakkundi, Gadag temples.
Hoysalas (11th–14th century CE)
45. The founder of Hoysala dynasty was?
A) Vishnuvardhana
B) Sala
C) Ballala I
D) Narasimha I
Answer: B
Explanation: According to legend, he killed a tiger (Hoy-sala means “Strike, Sala”), founding dynasty in 11th century.
46. The most important Hoysala ruler was?
A) Vishnuvardhana
B) Ballala II
C) Narasimha I
D) Sala
Answer: A
Explanation: He shifted capital to Belur, expanded empire, and built famous temples.
47. The capital of Hoysalas was initially at?
A) Dwarasamudra (Halebidu)
B) Belur
C) Srirangapatna
D) Mysore
Answer: B
Explanation: Later shifted to Halebidu (Dwarasamudra).
48. The famous Chennakesava temple at Belur was built by?
A) Vishnuvardhana
B) Ballala II
C) Narasimha II
D) Krishnadeva Raya
Answer: A
Explanation: Built in 1117 CE to commemorate his victory over Cholas.
49. The Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu was built by?
A) Vishnuvardhana
B) Ballala II
C) Narasimha I
D) Sala
Answer: B
Explanation: A great example of Hoysala art, dedicated to Shiva.
50. The Hoysalas are famous for which style of temple architecture?
A) Nagara
B) Dravidian
C) Vesara with star-shaped (stellate) plans
D) Indo-Islamic
Answer: C
Explanation: Hoysala temples at Belur and Halebidu show intricate sculptures, soapstone use, and star-shaped plans.
Imperial Cholas (9th–13th century CE)
51. Who is regarded as the real founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty?
A) Vijayalaya Chola
B) Rajaraja Chola I
C) Rajendra Chola I
D) Kulottunga I
Answer: A
Explanation: He captured Tanjavur in 9th century CE and revived Chola power.
52. The greatest Chola ruler was?
A) Rajendra Chola I
B) Rajaraja Chola I
C) Kulottunga I
D) Vijayalaya
Answer: B
Explanation: He expanded Chola empire, reformed administration, and promoted art.
53. The Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur was built by?
A) Rajendra Chola I
B) Rajaraja Chola I
C) Kulottunga I
D) Aditya I
Answer: B
Explanation: Completed in 1010 CE, a UNESCO site and example of Dravidian architecture.
54. Rajendra Chola I is famous for?
A) Conquest of Kalinga
B) Naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia
C) Construction of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Explanation: He carried Chola power overseas and built new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
55. Rajendra Chola I assumed the title?
A) Chola Chakravarti
B) Gangaikonda Chola
C) Vatapikonda
D) Samrat
Answer: B
Explanation: After successful campaign up to the Ganges.
56. The Cholas developed which administrative system?
A) Centralized monarchy only
B) Local self-government in villages
C) Feudal system
D) Zamindari
Answer: B
Explanation: Chola inscriptions mention Ur, Sabha, Nagaram – village assemblies.
57. The famous Uttaramerur inscription relates to?
A) Military campaigns
B) Chola village administration
C) Temple construction
D) Trade with China
Answer: B
Explanation: Describes qualifications for members of village assemblies.
58. The Chola navy was strongest under?
A) Vijayalaya
B) Rajaraja I
C) Rajendra I
D) Kulottunga I
Answer: C
Explanation: He launched naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Java.
59. The decline of the Cholas began after?
A) Rajendra I
B) Kulottunga I
C) Rajaraja I
D) Aditya I
Answer: B
Explanation: After his reign, Chola power gradually declined and was replaced by Pandyas.
Later Pandyas (13th–14th century CE)
60. The Later Pandyas rose to prominence after decline of?
A) Pallavas
B) Cholas
C) Rashtrakutas
D) Hoysalas
Answer: B
Explanation: With Chola decline in 13th century, Pandyas revived under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan.
61. The capital of Later Pandyas was?
A) Madurai
B) Tanjavur
C) Kanchi
D) Belur
Answer: A
Explanation: Madurai remained their stronghold.
62. The Pandya king who expanded up to Sri Lanka was?
A) Kadungon
B) Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I
C) Rajasimha
D) Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan
Answer: B
Explanation: He revived Pandya glory, expanded territory, and patronized temples.
63. The Later Pandya kingdom declined due to invasions of?
A) Cholas
B) Khaljis (Malik Kafur)
C) Bahmanis
D) Vijayanagara
Answer: B
Explanation: Malik Kafur invaded Madurai in 1311, weakening the Pandyas.
Kakatiyas (12th–14th century CE)
64. The Kakatiya kingdom was based in?
A) Andhra region
B) Tamil Nadu
C) Kerala
D) Karnataka
Answer: A
Explanation: Capital at Warangal, they ruled Telangana and Andhra.
65. The most famous Kakatiya ruler was?
A) Rudradeva
B) Ganapati Deva
C) Prataparudra II
D) Rudrama Devi
Answer: D
Explanation: One of the few female rulers in South India (1262–1289 CE).
66. The capital of Kakatiyas was?
A) Amaravati
B) Warangal
C) Devagiri
D) Madurai
Answer: B
Explanation: Fortified capital with unique architecture.
67. Rudrama Devi was succeeded by?
A) Ganapati Deva
B) Prataparudra II
C) Harihara
D) Bukka
Answer: B
Explanation: He ruled until Kakatiya defeat by Delhi Sultanate forces.
68. The Kakatiya kingdom fell after invasion by?
A) Malik Kafur
B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
C) Qutb Shahi rulers
D) Babur
Answer: A
Explanation: Repeated invasions ended Kakatiya power by 1323 CE.
Yadavas of Devagiri (12th–14th century CE)
69. The Yadavas of Devagiri ruled over present-day?
A) Tamil Nadu
B) Maharashtra
C) Kerala
D) Andhra
Answer: B
Explanation: Devagiri (Daulatabad) was their capital.
70. The famous Yadava ruler who patronized Sanskrit and Marathi literature was?
A) Bhillama V
B) Jaitugi
C) Singhana II
D) Krishna
Answer: C
Explanation: He was the most powerful Yadava king (1210–1247 CE).
71. The Yadava kingdom ended after conquest by?
A) Khaljis (Alauddin)
B) Cholas
C) Bahmani rulers
D) Vijayanagara
Answer: A
Explanation: Alauddin captured Devagiri in 1294, weakening the Yadavas.
Reddis of Kondavidu (14th–15th century CE)
72. The Reddi kingdom was established in?
A) Karnataka
B) Tamil Nadu
C) Andhra Pradesh
D) Kerala
Answer: C
Explanation: Founded in early 14th century after fall of Kakatiyas.
73. The founder of Reddi kingdom was?
A) Prolaya Vema Reddi
B) Rudradeva
C) Bukka Raya
D) Harihara
Answer: A
Explanation: He set up Reddi rule in Kondavidu.
74. The Reddis were known for promoting?
A) Urdu
B) Telugu literature and culture
C) Persian administration
D) Buddhism
Answer: B
Explanation: They supported Telugu poets and temple building.
75. The Reddi kingdom was eventually absorbed into?
A) Vijayanagara Empire
B) Bahmani Kingdom
C) Mughal Empire
D) Marathas
Answer: A
Explanation: Vijayanagara rulers annexed the Reddi territories in 15th century.
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565 CE)
76. The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by?
A) Harihara and Bukka
B) Krishnadeva Raya
C) Deva Raya II
D) Saluva Narasimha
Answer: A
Explanation: They established the empire under the blessings of saint Vidyaranya of Sringeri.
77. The capital city of Vijayanagara was?
A) Belur
B) Halebidu
C) Hampi
D) Kanchipuram
Answer: C
Explanation: Situated on the banks of Tungabhadra, now a UNESCO site.
78. The greatest ruler of Vijayanagara Empire was?
A) Harihara I
B) Krishnadeva Raya
C) Saluva Narasimha
D) Deva Raya I
Answer: B
Explanation: Belonged to Tuluva dynasty; ruled 1509–1529 CE; peak of Vijayanagara glory.
79. Krishnadeva Raya wrote which famous Telugu work?
A) Kavirajamarga
B) Amuktamalyada
C) Manimekalai
D) Rajatarangini
Answer: B
Explanation: Written in Telugu, it describes his ideas on kingship and administration.
80. The famous Ashtadiggajas were?
A) Eight great generals
B) Eight great ministers
C) Eight great poets in Krishnadeva Raya’s court
D) Eight temple architects
Answer: C
Explanation: They enriched Telugu literature; included Allasani Peddana, Nandi Timmana, Tenali Rama.
81. The ruler of Vijayanagara who defeated the Bahmani Sultans and the Gajapati of Orissa was?
A) Harihara I
B) Krishnadeva Raya
C) Deva Raya II
D) Saluva Narasimha
Answer: B
Explanation: He secured victories and expanded empire to its maximum extent.
82. The Battle of Talikota (1565) was fought between?
A) Vijayanagara Empire vs Cholas
B) Vijayanagara Empire vs Bahmani Sultanate
C) Vijayanagara Empire vs Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar)
D) Vijayanagara vs Mughals
Answer: C
Explanation: The combined forces of the Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara → city of Hampi destroyed.
83. The dynasty to which Krishnadeva Raya belonged was?
A) Sangama
B) Saluva
C) Tuluva
D) Aravidu
Answer: C
Explanation: The third dynasty of Vijayanagara Empire.
84. Which Italian traveler visited Vijayanagara during Krishnadeva Raya’s reign?
A) Marco Polo
B) Domingo Paes
C) Nicolo Conti
D) Ibn Battuta
Answer: B
Explanation: He praised Vijayanagara’s wealth, prosperity, and military power.
85. The main style of Vijayanagara architecture is known as?
A) Nagara
B) Vesara
C) Dravida (revived with new features)
D) Indo-Islamic
Answer: C
Explanation: Tall Raya Gopurams, large mandapas, Hampi temples show unique Vijayanagara Dravidian style.
Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1527 CE)
86. The Bahmani kingdom was founded in 1347 by?
A) Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah
B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
C) Mahmud Gawan
D) Yusuf Adil Shah
Answer: A
Explanation: Founded after rebellion against Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
87. The capital of Bahmani kingdom was initially at?
A) Bidar
B) Gulbarga (Ahsanabad)
C) Devagiri
D) Bijapur
Answer: B
Explanation: Later shifted to Bidar in 1429.
88. Who was the most famous minister of Bahmani kingdom?
A) Hasan Bahman
B) Mahmud Gawan
C) Yusuf Adil Shah
D) Firoz Shah Bahmani
Answer: B
Explanation: Persian prime minister known for reforms in revenue, army, and education.
89. Mahmud Gawan established a famous madarasa (college) at?
A) Gulbarga
B) Bidar
C) Bijapur
D) Daulatabad
Answer: B
Explanation: It became a great center of Islamic learning.
90. The Bahmani kingdom broke up into?
A) Two kingdoms
B) Five Deccan Sultanates
C) Mughal provinces
D) Maratha chiefdoms
Answer: B
Explanation: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar.
Legacy, Society, Culture, Applied Questions
91. The Southern Kingdoms contributed most significantly to?
A) Islamic architecture
B) Dravidian temple architecture
C) Indo-Islamic paintings
D) European trading centers
Answer: B
Explanation: Cholas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara enriched Dravidian style.
92. The Vijayanagara rulers promoted which religion prominently?
A) Buddhism
B) Jainism
C) Vaishnavism and Shaivism
D) Islam
Answer: C
Explanation: They built magnificent Hindu temples and promoted Sanskrit-Telugu literature.
93. The Hoysalas are famous for their temples made of?
A) Granite
B) Soapstone
C) Marble
D) Sandstone
Answer: B
Explanation: Allowed intricate carvings at Belur, Halebidu.
94. The “Navaratnas” in Krishnadeva Raya’s court were?
A) Temple architects
B) Musicians
C) Poets and scholars
D) Revenue ministers
Answer: C
Explanation: Ashtadiggajas formed the literary “gems.”
95. The ruler known as Andhra Bhoja for patronage of learning was?
A) Amoghavarsha I (Rashtrakuta)
B) Krishnadeva Raya (Vijayanagara)
C) Rajaraja Chola I
D) Rudrama Devi
Answer: B
Explanation: His patronage of arts earned him the title “Andhra Bhoja.”
96. The Battle of Talikota (1565) is also called?
A) Battle of Hampi
B) Battle of Banihatti
C) Battle of Bidar
D) Battle of Raichur
Answer: B
Explanation: It destroyed Vijayanagara power; Hampi was looted.
97. Which dynasty first developed the Vesara style (blend of Nagara & Dravida)?
A) Chalukyas of Badami
B) Cholas
C) Rashtrakutas
D) Pandyas
Answer: A
Explanation: Seen in Aihole, Pattadakal temples.
98. The main reason for Vijayanagara’s prosperity was?
A) Agriculture only
B) Foreign trade with Arabs, Portuguese, Chinese
C) Temple economy and diamond trade
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Explanation: Agriculture, trade, temple-based economy made it one of the richest states.
99. Which European traveler called Hampi “as large as Rome” and admired its wealth?
A) Marco Polo
B) Domingo Paes
C) Nicolo Conti
D) Duarte Barbosa
Answer: C
Explanation: He visited Vijayanagara in 15th century and compared it to Rome.
100. The significance of Southern Kingdoms in Indian history lies in?
A) Rich contributions to art, architecture, literature
B) Strong regional empires balancing Delhi Sultanate
C) Naval expeditions linking India to Southeast Asia
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Explanation: Southern kingdoms were centers of power, culture, trade, and overseas influence.